ACTIVE LEARNING
Guidelines
Discussion
General Rules for Discussion
All discussion have some general "rules of engagement." For inexperienced groups and to avoid problems in the future, be explicit about the "rules." The following are some basic ground rules and considerations, but the group may choose to expand the list.
Non-threatening, mutually respectful atmosphere-all opinions are equally valid.
Body language: - moving/leaning toward a speaker validates their contribution.
- moving/leaning between two disagreeing parties breaks the flow.
- facial expressions (eye rolling, sneering, and even smiling can be intimidating)
- tone of voice (is your tone curious or is it confrontational, skeptical, or patronizing?)
Limit the length of individual contributions (set by the group)
Limit the number individual contributions (set by the group)
Participants must take ownership of the discussion and "police" their own group.
Small Group Discussions
In small groups, students work together to share thoughts and ideas. Small groups are one of the most successful strategies for development of critical thinking about course content. Small group discussions are particularly useful as a preliminary to whole-class discussion because it provides a non-threatening atmosphere in which that makes it easier ask for clarification, resolve confusion and generate new ideas.
Requirements for Success
Classroom research on small groups indicates that there are three basic requirements for small groups to operate effectively.
1. Explicit objectives and scale (group or individual). If students will be evaluated (graded), make sure that the scale of the objectives and the evaluation are equivalent.
2. Clearly defined task. This will be easier if you
- state your rationale (why is this important?)
- describe the process (what students will do?)
- state your goals (what do you expect students to achieve?)
3. Prepared students. Successful group activities require prior knowledge gained from any number of sources including, but not limited to, lectures, readings, or prerequisite courses.
Suggested Activities for Small Groups
1. Define or paraphrase key terms and concepts.
2. Arrive at an overall understanding of a reading assignment.
3. Discuss major topics from the reading assignment.
4. Ask or answer questions about readings, lecture topics, key issues.
5. Solve problems, generally following five steps:
- identify the problem or question
- discuss causes and effects
- propose solutions (generate hypotheses)
- identify criteria that a solution must meet
- apply and evaluate whether the criteria are met
- discuss how to implement the solution
6. Evaluate data and interpretations.
Whole
class discussions require that all participants practice active
listening. When participants listen actively, they:
- Watch
- Listen
- Restate
- Ask Questions Options
for Getting Discussions Started
1. Read a contentious
statement by an authority figure and ask participants to discuss what
is right/wrong with the statement. 2. Key
word meanings (free association of meanings)
3. Ask questions
logically and sequentially. Select shorter, more general questions
from your question outline as lead-ins for more detailed and thought
provoking questions.
Maintaining
the Discussion
1. Ask only single
questions. Asking series of questions or run-on questions only
causes frustration and confusion.
2. Give participants
time to think. Wait at least 3 -5 seconds after asking a question.
Waiting encourages the number and length of contributions.
3. LISTEN carefully.
Are you hearing exactly what the speaker is saying? Is there a
subtext, is the speaker saying what he/she means? Give feedback that
lets others know you understand what was said. Try writing it on the
board or repeating it. You may also use this technique to select a
particular point for emphasis from a lengthy comment.
4. WATCH for signs of
confusion or unsuccessful attempts to contribute. If you or anyone
else is confused, restate what you have understood and ask if that is
correct.
5. Expect to ask
unplanned questions that follow-up on participant contributions.
Encourage contributors to clarify initial comments and to support
their point of view. Your repertoire should include questions such
as: "Would you restate that?" "Could you clarify that
further?" "What are some alternatives?" "Can
you defend/support your position?" 6. Intervene
periodically to: summarize
(then ask for agreement/disagreement) link
a recent comment with an earlier remark ask
a new question to redirect the discussion
7. Be willing to let
the discussion go its own direction without attempting to control it.
Don't force your outline so much that it inhibits the free flow of
ideas.
Summary Summaries,
like discussions, take on different forms and vary with the topic. A
final summary may describe the highlights and sequence of the
discussion, or it may simply be a list of the unresolved issues or
unanswered questions.
The
discussion leader should avoid decisive summaries of the discussion
because it can give the impression that the purpose of the discussion
was to discover information known only to the leader. Reiterate that
the discussion is a collaborative learning experience. You might
consider asking one or two of the participants to summarize.
Oral Presentations
Oral
presentations are used primarily as an evaluative tool. Most
instructors view presentations as a way to assess student command of
a subject. If the presenter and the audience are not prepared,
however, an oral presentation may merely be an assessment of
competency in public speaking.
Presentations
can provide a forum for viewing student understanding and thought
processes long before mid-term or final evaluation. Also,
performance in front of peers provides an incentive to do well that
is not a factor in written assignments.
Requirements
for Success When
students make presentations or lead discussions, the instructor takes
on many roles, including facilitator, audience participant, and
evaluator (of the presenter, and possibly, the class). Two of the
most critical inputs of the instructor are:
- Explicit
instructions. Both the presenter and the class need to know what
you expect them to contribute.
- Oral or written
feedback. Make content-specific comments and concrete
suggestions for improvement. Point out strengths as well as
weaknesses.
Presentation
Format Options Oral
presentations can be broken down into two general kinds,
presentations by an individual or group.
Individual
Presentations Presentations
by individual students usually involve one of the following:
- research and
synthesis
- critique and report
- lecture
- poster session Group
Presentations
Groups
of students can present material in a variety of ways, two of the
most common include panels and debates.
Panels
approach the subject matter in ways similar to individual
presentations, but instead of lecturing, they take questions from the
class. - research
and synthesis - critique
and report - respond
to class questions Debates
involve the exploration of an issue or an interpretation, usually
controversial, by opposing sides. The instructor provides explicit
directions about how to participate, which helps focus attention on
the content and away from the manner in which students participate.
Issues
can be debated by groups or by a selection of individuals with an
audience.
- Groups. Divide the
class into two groups with opposing views, or select a small group of
students to represent each view while the rest of the class observes.
- Pairs. Choose a pair
of students to represent opposing views. When only two students are
presenting information, other students become motivated to be
informed, analyze, and formulate their own opinions. Case
Studies This
category of active learning strategies include situations in which
students, singly or in groups, apply course content to particular
issues or problems. Case studies increase interaction among students
and between students and the teacher. One of the typical goals of
the case study approach is to teach students how to pinpoint the
critical strengths or weaknesses of a case and differentiate
important factors from less important factors.
Case
studies are one of the most effective ways to develop and apply
problem solving skills. In many archaeology courses oral
presentations are centered on critiques of the professional
literature and thus conform to this model. Student presenters are
generally expected to be able to identify the problems, conduct
background research on key issues, and recognize the unique
contributions of the author(s) whether they agree or disagree with
the conclusions.
Requirements
for Success
Instructor The
primary roles of the instructor are that of organizer and
facilitator. Organizing a successful case study involves planning,
being explicit about your goals and what you expect from students.
Some key considerations include:
Simple to Complex.
Cases should be ordered from simple to complex within the course.
Choose initial cases in which the problems are clear and extreme.
Students will develop and hone their analytic skills as the course
progresses.
Instructions.
- Presenters-Provide
instructions about how to present the case and lead the discussion.
One of the best ways for students to learn how to conduct a case
study is to conduct a simple one yourself. Hold a debriefing session
in which you explicitly describe the steps that they have to go
through to achieve the same structure and organization.
- Class-Provide
instructions about how to participate in the discussion.
Questions . Provide
discussion questions to guide students in their solution of the
problem. If a student will be leading the case study, you might
provide guidelines to help the presenter develop her/his own
questions.
Evaluation.
Specify how participation will be graded. This requires
concentration on student comments and how they contribute to
resolution of the problem. What constitutes a contribution? Do
comments have to be substantive, demonstrate thoughtful consideration
of the issue, or merely be verbal? Will you consider how students
communicate with the group as well as the content of their
contributions?
Student
Students
must be prepared for learning to take place and for successful
analysis of the case.
The
research process involves:
1. background
research on the issue (case) and on previous attempts at resolution
2. proposed
solutions
3. consequences
of those solutions
4. resolution
or implementation-immediate implementation is not always possible,
particularly in instances where additional data collection is
necessary. The
research process may be partitioned to concentrate or disperse
responsibility among the member of the class. One student may
present the case and background research, after which the remainder
of the class proposes solutions and consequences. Alternatives
include distributing responsibility evenly for each step, or
splitting the case into different aspects each subject to the
complete process by an individual or sub-group of the class.
Writing Assignments Writing
assignments are nearly always used as a tool to assess how well
students can articulate material presented in lecture or readings.
Writing assignments also have potential to engage students in their
conceptual development and encourage active investigation of material
presented in class.
Student
involvement is accomplished by devising writing assignments that
promote student-professor or student-student communication. One way
to promote student interest and engagement in the learning process
involves evaluation-free writing. Writing
to Learn These
strategies involve students writing in a non-evaluative context.
Although students do not receive grades, writing assignments can be
used as an assessment technique. They permit instructors to
determine whether their learning expectations are being met and to
view how students process information. Most importantly, these
techniques provide the opportunity for instructors to respond to
uncertainties, misconceptions, and confusion.
Journals. Students
keep a journal of their thoughts throughout the course. If your
goals for the exercise are clear, then you can be explicit in your
instructions. Describe what you expect from students in terms of
content and detail. Provide examples of exceptional journal entries.
Brief in-class writing
periods. These can take a wide variety of forms and frequencies
depending on the purpose of the assessment. The format and frequency
would differ if you the goal was to determine students' comprehension
of subject matter, clarification of a point, or to possibly revise
the course). Possible forms include: Form Frequency questions
(single or multiple) daily
(mid-class or end of class) clarification
of a point weekly minute
essay subject
conclusion 5-
or 10-minute essay periodically
during the term respond
to a question, assignment, or lecture final
day of class
Students as writers,
readers, and responders. This method involves three steps: a brief
writing period, peer response, and instructor response.
1. Each
student writes down questions or points of confusion.
2. Students
divide into pairs or groups to exchange what they have written. They
then respond to the questions and clarify confusing issues.
3. After
the discussion period, students ask the instructor unanswered
questions or request additional explanations.